A Comparison of the Motor Skills of Young People in a Youth Detention Centre with Diagnosed Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Prenatal Alcohol Exposure, and a Reference Population
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Abstract
Materials and Methods: Participants completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2), Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) including its associated subtests, and a handwriting screen.
Results: Ninety-nine young people (n=47 PAE; n= 36 FASD) with a mean age of 16 years were assessed. There was an association between a FASD diagnosis and lower scores on the VMI (p=0.005). Participants with FASD and PAE had higher impairment levels on the VMI compared to the No-PAE group. Mean MABC-2 scores were within age expected levels across all groups. More fine motor skill difficulties were observed compared to gross motor skill difficulties. Handwriting skills were below age expected levels in 84% of participants. Those in the PAE and FASD groups had more difficulty with letter formations and spatial awareness.
Conclusions: Visual motor integration and handwriting skills were often impaired in this population. Lower VMI scores were more prevalent in participants diagnosed with FASD, and therefore should be routinely assessed as part of a diagnostic assessment. Assessment of fine and gross motor skills enabled recommendations for intervention support that address deficits and build upon strengths. Further research is needed to confirm these results using larger populations, and to investigate possible confounding factors associated with high VMI and handwriting difficulties in this population.
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Safe, B., Joosten, A., Bower, C., Condon, C., Watkins, R., Mutch, R., & Giglia, R. (2018). A Comparison of the Motor Skills of Young People in a Youth Detention Centre with Diagnosed Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Prenatal Alcohol Exposure, and a Reference Population. Journal of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, 1(1), e17-e32. https://doi.org/10.22374/jfasrp.v1i1.5
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References
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22. Aragon AS, Kalberg WO, Buckley D, et al. Neuropsychological study of FASD in a sample of American Indian children: processing simple versus complex information. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2008;32(12):2136–48. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00802.x
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24. Doney R, Lucas BR, Jirikowic T, et al. Graphomotor skills in children with prenatal alcohol exposure and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A population-based study in remote Australia. Aust Occup Ther J 2016;64(1):68–78. doi:10.1111/1440-1630.12326
25. Duval-White CJ, Jirikowic T, Rios D, et al. Functional handwriting performance in school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Am J Occup Ther 2013;67(5):534–542 539p. doi:10.5014/ajot.2013.008243
26. Golding J, Emmett P, Iles-Caven Y, et al. A review of environmental contributions to childhood motor skills. J Child Neurol 2014;29(11):1531–47. doi:10.1177/0883073813507483
27. Norman RE, Byambaa M, De R, et al. The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Med 2012;9(11): e1001349. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
28. Rutter M, Rutter M. Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption after severe global early privation. English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. J Child Psychol Psyc 1998;39(4):465. doi:10.1017/S0021963098002236
29. Price A, Cook PA, Norgate S, Mukherjee R. Prenatal alcohol exposure and traumatic childhood experiences: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav R 2017;80:89–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.018
30. Portwood M. Developmental Dyspraxia: Identification and Intervention (2 ed.). Oxon, UK: David Fulton Publishers; 1999.
31. Passmore HM, Giglia R, Watkins RE, et al. Study protocol for screening and diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) among young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia. BMJ Open 2016;6(6). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012184
32. World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA 310 (20): 2191–94. 2013. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.281053
33. Henderson A, Sugden D, Barnett A. Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC-2) (2nd ed.). London UK: The Psychological Corporation; 2007
34. Beery K, Beery N. The Beery-Buktenica Development Test of Visual-Motor Integration: administration, scoring and teaching manual (6th ed.). Minneapolis (MN): Pearson; 2010.
35. Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonell MB, et al. The audit alcohol consumption questions (audit-c): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Intern Med 1998;158(16):1789–95. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
36. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Cambridge (MA): Academic Press; 1977.
37. Doney R, Lucas BR, Watkins RE, et al. Visual-motor integration, visual perception, and fine motor coordination in a population of children with high levels of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Res Dev Disabil 2016;55:346–57. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.05.009
38. Memisevic H, Sinanovic O. Executive functions as predictors of visual-motor integration in children with intellectual disability. Percept Motor Skill 2013;117(3):913–22. doi:10.2466/15.25.PMS.117x25z4
39. Tomchek SD, Schneck CM. Evaluation of handwriting. In A. Henderson & C. Pehoski (Eds.), Hand function in the child: foundations for remediation (pp. 293–318). St. Louis (MO): Mosby, Inc; 2006
40. Klein S, Guiltner V, Sollereder P, Cui Y. Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Phys Occup Ther Pedi 2011;31(1):103–14. doi:10.3109/01942638.2010.541753
41. Preminger F, Weiss PL, Weintraub N. Predicting occupational performance: handwriting versus keyboarding. Am J Occup Ther 2004;58(2):193–201. doi:10.5014/ajot.58.2.193
42. Lucas B, Doney R, Latimer J, et al. Impairment of motor skills in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in remote Australia: The Lililwan Project. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016 doi:10.1111/dar.12375
43. Gwynn J, Hardy L, Wiggers J, et al. The validation of a self-report measure and physical activity of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous rural children. Aus NZ J Publ Heal 2010;34:S57–S65. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2010.00555.x
44. Taylor AJ, Taylor AJ. Coming, ready or not: Aboriginal children's transition to school in urban australia and the policy push. Int J Early Years Educ 2011;19(2):145–61. doi:10.1080/09669760.2011.602593
45. Hamilton S. A Prevalence Study of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder in Youth Detention in Western Australia. Poster presented at the 6th Annual National Health Medical Research Council Symposium on Research Translation, Brisbane; 2017.
46. Wuang Y-P, Su J-H, Su C-Y. Reliability and responsiveness of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition Test in children with developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012;54(2):160–65. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04177.x
2. Bower C, Elliott EJ, Zimmet M, et al. Australian guide to the diagnosis of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A summary. J Paediatr Child H 2017;53(10):1021–23. doi:10.1111/jpc.13625
3. Cook JL, Green CR, Lilley CM, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a guideline for diagnosis across the lifespan. CMAJ 2016;188:191–97. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.141593.
4. Lange S, Probst C, Gmel G, et al. Global prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among children and youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr 2017;171(10):948–56. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.1919
5. Hughes N, Clasby B, Chitsabesan P, Williams H. A systematic review of the prevalence of foetal alcohol syndrome disorders among young people in the criminal justice system. Cogent Psychol 2016;3(1). doi:1214213
6. Bower C, Watkins RE, Mutch RC, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and youth justice: a prevalence study among young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia. BMJ Open 2018;8(2). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019605
7. Popova S, Lange S, Bekmuradov D, et al. Fetal Alcohol spectrum disorder prevalence estimates in correctional systems: a systematic literature review. C J Public Health 2011;102(5):336–40. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17269/cjph.102.2718
8. Clark E, Lutke J, Minnes P, et al. Secondary disabilities among adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in British Columbia. J FAS Int 2004;2(13):1–12.
9. Streissguth A, Bookstein F, Barr H, et al. risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004;25(4):228–38. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15308923
10. Jennett S. Churchill Livingstone Dictionary of Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine. Philladelphia: Elsevier Limited; 2008. Retrieved from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/motor+skills.
11. Schneck CM. Visual perception. In J. Case-Smith (Ed.), Occupational therapy for children (6 ed., pp. 373–403). St. Louis(MO): Elsevier Mosby; 2010.
12. Adnams CM, Kodituwakku PW, Hay A, et al. Patterns of cognitive-motor development in children with fetal alcohol syndrome from a community in South Africa [corrected] [published erratum appears in ALCOHOLISM 2001 Aug; 25(8):1187]. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2001;25(4):557–62 556p.
13. Bookstein FL, Streissguth AP, Sampson PD, et al. Corpus callosum shape and neuropsychological deficits in adult males with heavy fetal alcohol exposure. Neuroimage 2002;15(1):233–51.
14. Roebuck TM, Simmons RW, Richardson C, et al. Neuromuscular responses to disturbance of balance in children with prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998;22(9):1992–97. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9884143
15. Roebuck-Spencer TM, Mattson SN, Marion SD, et al. Bimanual coordination in alcohol-exposed children: Role of the corpus callosum. J Int Neuropsych Soc 2004;10(4):536–48. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15327732
16. Hands B, Licari M, Piek J. A review of five tests to identify motor coordination difficulties in young adults. Res Dev Disabil 2015;41–42:40–51. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.05.009
17. Connor PD, Sampson PD, Streissguth AP, et al. Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fine motor coordination and balance: A study of two adult samples. Neuropsychologia 2006;44(5):744–51. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.016
18. Tamana S, Pei J, Massey D, et al. Neuropsychological Impairments and Age Related Differences – in Children and Adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol 2014;21(2): e167–80.
19. Simmons RW, Thomas JD, Levy SS, Riley EP. Motor response programming and movement time in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol 2010;44(4):371–78. doi: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2010.02.013
20. Mattson SN, Riley EP, Gramling L, et al. Neuropsychological comparison of alcohol-exposed children with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychology 1998;12(1):146–53.
21. Vaurio L, Riley EP, Mattson SN. Neuropsychological Comparison of children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and an IQ-matched comparison group. J Int Neuropsych Soc 2011;17(3):463–73. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711000063
22. Aragon AS, Kalberg WO, Buckley D, et al. Neuropsychological study of FASD in a sample of American Indian children: processing simple versus complex information. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2008;32(12):2136–48. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00802.x
23. Safe B, Joosten A, Giglia R. Assessing motor skills to inform a Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder diagnosis focusing on persons older than 12 years: A systematic review of the literature. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol 2018;25(1):e25–e38. doi:10.22374/1710-6222.25.1.3
24. Doney R, Lucas BR, Jirikowic T, et al. Graphomotor skills in children with prenatal alcohol exposure and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A population-based study in remote Australia. Aust Occup Ther J 2016;64(1):68–78. doi:10.1111/1440-1630.12326
25. Duval-White CJ, Jirikowic T, Rios D, et al. Functional handwriting performance in school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Am J Occup Ther 2013;67(5):534–542 539p. doi:10.5014/ajot.2013.008243
26. Golding J, Emmett P, Iles-Caven Y, et al. A review of environmental contributions to childhood motor skills. J Child Neurol 2014;29(11):1531–47. doi:10.1177/0883073813507483
27. Norman RE, Byambaa M, De R, et al. The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Med 2012;9(11): e1001349. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
28. Rutter M, Rutter M. Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption after severe global early privation. English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. J Child Psychol Psyc 1998;39(4):465. doi:10.1017/S0021963098002236
29. Price A, Cook PA, Norgate S, Mukherjee R. Prenatal alcohol exposure and traumatic childhood experiences: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav R 2017;80:89–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.018
30. Portwood M. Developmental Dyspraxia: Identification and Intervention (2 ed.). Oxon, UK: David Fulton Publishers; 1999.
31. Passmore HM, Giglia R, Watkins RE, et al. Study protocol for screening and diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) among young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia. BMJ Open 2016;6(6). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012184
32. World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA 310 (20): 2191–94. 2013. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.281053
33. Henderson A, Sugden D, Barnett A. Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC-2) (2nd ed.). London UK: The Psychological Corporation; 2007
34. Beery K, Beery N. The Beery-Buktenica Development Test of Visual-Motor Integration: administration, scoring and teaching manual (6th ed.). Minneapolis (MN): Pearson; 2010.
35. Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonell MB, et al. The audit alcohol consumption questions (audit-c): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Intern Med 1998;158(16):1789–95. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
36. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Cambridge (MA): Academic Press; 1977.
37. Doney R, Lucas BR, Watkins RE, et al. Visual-motor integration, visual perception, and fine motor coordination in a population of children with high levels of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Res Dev Disabil 2016;55:346–57. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.05.009
38. Memisevic H, Sinanovic O. Executive functions as predictors of visual-motor integration in children with intellectual disability. Percept Motor Skill 2013;117(3):913–22. doi:10.2466/15.25.PMS.117x25z4
39. Tomchek SD, Schneck CM. Evaluation of handwriting. In A. Henderson & C. Pehoski (Eds.), Hand function in the child: foundations for remediation (pp. 293–318). St. Louis (MO): Mosby, Inc; 2006
40. Klein S, Guiltner V, Sollereder P, Cui Y. Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Phys Occup Ther Pedi 2011;31(1):103–14. doi:10.3109/01942638.2010.541753
41. Preminger F, Weiss PL, Weintraub N. Predicting occupational performance: handwriting versus keyboarding. Am J Occup Ther 2004;58(2):193–201. doi:10.5014/ajot.58.2.193
42. Lucas B, Doney R, Latimer J, et al. Impairment of motor skills in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in remote Australia: The Lililwan Project. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016 doi:10.1111/dar.12375
43. Gwynn J, Hardy L, Wiggers J, et al. The validation of a self-report measure and physical activity of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous rural children. Aus NZ J Publ Heal 2010;34:S57–S65. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2010.00555.x
44. Taylor AJ, Taylor AJ. Coming, ready or not: Aboriginal children's transition to school in urban australia and the policy push. Int J Early Years Educ 2011;19(2):145–61. doi:10.1080/09669760.2011.602593
45. Hamilton S. A Prevalence Study of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder in Youth Detention in Western Australia. Poster presented at the 6th Annual National Health Medical Research Council Symposium on Research Translation, Brisbane; 2017.
46. Wuang Y-P, Su J-H, Su C-Y. Reliability and responsiveness of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition Test in children with developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012;54(2):160–65. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04177.x